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Table 1 Health behaviors, social characteristics and context of Life + Health study participants (US-Born ages 25–64 years recruited from 3 community health centers), stratified by target vs. dominant groups for 6 types of discrimination, Boston, Massachusetts, 2020–2022

From: Analyzing multiple types of discrimination using implicit and explicit measures, comparing target vs. Dominant groups, in a study of smoking/vaping among community health center members in Boston, Massachusetts (2020–2022)

 

Types of Discrimination: a priori comparison groups (target and dominant)

Total

Sample

Racism

(N = 699)

Sexism

(N = 699)

Heterosexism a

(N = 697)

Cissexism b

(N = 699)

Ageism

(N = 699)

Sizeism c

(N = 647)

Variable

Overall

White non-Hispanic

Person of Color

Man

Woman

Nonbinary/

Genderqueer

LGBQ

Straight

Cisgender

Not Cisgender

25–44

yrs old

45–64

yrs old

“Not Obese"

“Obese”

N

699

478 (68.4%)

221 (31.6%)

313 (44.8%)

254 (36.3%)

132

(18.9%)

478 (68.6%)

219 (31.4%)

477 (68.2%)

222 (31.8%)

520 (74.4%)

179 (25.6%)

400 (61.8%)

247 (38.2%)

Health Behavior: Current Smoking/Vapingd

Current Smoker or Regular Vaper

108 (15.5%)

64 (13.4%)

44 (19.9%)

45 (14.4%)

36 (14.2%)

27

(20.5%)

77 (16.1%)

30 (13.7%)

66 (13.8%)

42 (18.9%)

81 (15.6%)

27 (15.1%)

65 (16.2%)

36 (14.6%)

Age, BMI, & Social Group Membershipe

Age in Years: Mean (SD)

37.87 (11.15)

38.09 (11.50)

40.65 (12.12)

36.67 (10.58)

33.95 (8.46)

37.78

(11.00)

38.11 (11.71)

39.59 (11.94)

34.38 (8.62)

32.09 (5.07)

54.92 (5.64)

36.48 (10.65)

40.23 (11.87)

37.87 (11.15)

BMI: Mean (SD)

28.39 (6.61)

30.87 (8.19)

28.68 (6.41)

29.19 (7.99)

30.18 (7.44)

28.76

(6.49)

29.93 (8.57)

29.00 (7.03)

29.47 (7.63)

28.74 (7.39)

30.36 (6.58)

24.73 (2.89)

36.31 (6.34)

28.39 (6.61)

[Missing: N (%)]

[31 (6.5%)]

[21

(9.5%)]

[23 (7.3%)]

[23 (9.1%)]

[6

(4.5%)]

[35

(7.3%)]

[17 (7.8%)]

[38 (8.0%)]

[14

(6.3%)]

[37 (7.1%)]

[15 (8.4%)]

[0

(0.0%)]

[0

(0.0%)]

[31

(6.5%)]

Racialized Group: N (%)f

 

White Non-Hispanic Only

478 (68.4%)

478

(100.0%)

NA

221 (70.6%)

163 (64.2%)

94

(71.2%)

365 (76.4%)

113 (51.6%)

311 (65.2%)

167 (75.2%)

357 (68.7%)

121 (67.6%)

297 (74.2%)

150 (60.7%)

Black Non-Hispanic Only

107 (15.3%)

NA

107 (48.4%)

40 (12.8%)

50 (19.7%)

17

(12.9%)

38

(7.9%)

67 (30.6%)

85

(17.8%)

22

(9.9%)

65 (12.5%)

42 (23.5%)

38

(9.5%)

57 (23.1%)

Hispanic Only

30

(4.3%)

NA

30 (13.6%)

14

(4.5%)

11

(4.3%)

5

(3.8%)

18

(3.8%)

12

(5.5%)

23

(4.8%)

7

(3.2%)

25

(4.8%)

5

(2.8%)

13

(3.2%)

15

(6.1%)

Asian Only

25

(3.6%)

NA

25 (11.3%)

12

(3.8%)

11

(4.3%)

2

(1.5%)

11

(2.3%)

14

(6.4%)

20

(4.2%)

5

(2.3%)

22

(4.2%)

3

(1.7%)

19

(4.8%)

5

(2.0%)

Middle Eastern or North African Only

1

(0.1%)

NA

1

(0.5%)

0

(0.0%)

0

(0.0%)

1

(0.8%)

1

(0.2%)

0

(0.0%)

0

(0.0%)

1

(0.5%)

1

(0.2%)

0

(0.0%)

1

(0.2%)

0

(0.0%)

Two or More Racialized Groups

58

(8.3%)

NA

58 (26.2%)

26

(8.3%)

19

(7.5%)

13

(9.8%)

45

(9.4%)

13

(5.9%)

38

(8.0%)

20

(9.0%)

50

(9.6%)

8

(4.5%)

32

(8.0%)

20

(8.1%)

American Indian/Alaskan Native (AIAN) Only

0

(0.0%)

0

(0.0%)

0

(0.0%)

0

(0.0%)

0

(0.0%)

0

(0.0%)

0

(0.0%)

0

(0.0%)

0

(0.0%)

0

(0.0%)

0

(0.0%)

0

(0.0%)

0

(0.0%)

0

(0.0%)

Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander (NHPI) Only

0

(0.0%)

0

(0.0%)

0

(0.0%)

0

(0.0%)

0

(0.0%)

0

(0.0%)

0

(0.0%)

0

(0.0%)

0

(0.0%)

0

(0.0%)

0

(0.0%)

0

(0.0%)

0

(0.0%)

0

(0.0%)

Gender Identity: N (%)

 

Cisgender Man

264 (37.8%)

184 (38.5%)

80 (36.2%)

264 (84.3%)

NA

NA

195 (40.8%)

69 (31.5%)

264 (55.3%)

NA

157 (30.2%)

107 (59.8%)

155 (38.8%)

91

(36.8%)

Cisgender Woman

213 (30.5%)

127 (26.6%)

86 (38.9%)

NA

213 (83.9%)

NA

84 (17.6%)

129 (58.9%)

213 (44.7%)

NA

165 (31.7%)

48 (26.8%)

121 (30.2%)

72

(29.1%)

Transgender Man

49

(7.0%)

37

(7.7%)

12

(5.4%)

49 (15.7%)

NA

NA

43

(9.0%)

5

(2.3%)

NA

49 (22.1%)

45

(8.7%)

4

(2.2%)

28

(7.0%)

16

(6.5%)

Transgender Woman

41

(5.9%)

36

(7.5%)

5

(2.3%)

NA

41 (16.1%)

NA

37

(7.7%)

3

(1.4%)

NA

41 (18.5%)

35

(6.7%)

6

(3.4%)

25

(6.2%)

13

(5.3%)

Nonbinary/

Transgender Nonbinary/

Genderqueer

132 (18.9%)

94

(19.7%)

38 (17.2%)

NA

NA

132

(100.0%)

119 (24.9%)

13

(5.9%)

NA

132 (59.5%)

118 (22.7%)

14

(7.8%)

71

(17.8%)

55

(22.3%)

Sexuality: N (%)g

 

Straight or Heterosexual

219 (31.3%)

113 (23.6%)

106 (48.0%)

74 (23.6%)

132 (52.0%)

13

(9.8%)

NA

219 (100.0%)

198 (41.5%)

21

(9.5%)

162 (31.2%)

57 (31.8%)

118 (29.5%)

84 (34.0%)

Gay or Lesbian

222 (31.8%)

170 (35.6%)

52 (23.5%)

172 (55.0%)

40 (15.7%)

10

(7.6%)

222 (46.4%)

NA

202 (42.3%)

20

(9.0%)

134 (25.8%)

88 (49.2%)

136 (34.0%)

72 (29.1%)

Queer

98 (14.0%)

78

(16.3%)

20

(9.0%)

21

(6.7%)

20

(7.9%)

57

(43.2%)

98 (20.5%)

NA

17

(3.6%)

81 (36.5%)

90 (17.3%)

8

(4.5%)

57

(14.2%)

37 (15.0%)

Two or More Sexual Minority Identities

97 (13.9%)

76

(15.9%)

21

(9.5%)

28

(8.9%)

34 (13.4%)

35

(26.5%)

97 (20.3%)

NA

35

(7.3%)

62 (27.9%)

84 (16.2%)

13

(7.3%)

54

(13.5%)

38 (15.4%)

Bisexual

44

(6.3%)

28

(5.9%)

16

(7.2%)

15

(4.8%)

22

(8.7%)

7

(5.3%)

44

(9.2%)

NA

22

(4.6%)

22

(9.9%)

37

(7.1%)

7

(3.9%)

25

(6.2%)

9

(3.6%)

Asexual

7

(1.0%)

6

(1.3%)

1

(0.5%)

1

(0.3%)

1

(0.4%)

5

(3.8%)

7

(1.5%)

NA

0

(0.0%)

7

(3.2%)

6

(1.2%)

1

(0.6%)

4

(1.0%)

3

(1.2%)

Pansexual

7

(1.0%)

6

(1.3%)

1

(0.5%)

0

(0.0%)

3

(1.2%)

4

(3.0%)

7

(1.5%)

NA

2

(0.4%)

5

(2.3%)

6

(1.2%)

1

(0.6%)

5

(1.2%)

2

(0.8%)

Same Gender Loving

2

(0.3%)

0

(0.0%)

2

(0.9%)

1

(0.3%)

0

(0.0%)

1

(0.8%)

2

(0.4%)

NA

1

(0.2%)

1

(0.5%)

0

(0.0%)

2

(1.1%)

0

(0.0%)

0

(0.0%)

Questioning

1

(0.1%)

1

(0.2%)

0

(0.0%)

0

(0.0%)

1

(0.4%)

0

(0.0%)

1

(0.2%)

NA

0

(0.0%)

1

(0.5%)

1

(0.2%)

0

(0.0%)

1

(0.2%)

0

(0.0%)

Unspecified

2

(0.3%)

0

(0.0%)

2

(0.9%)

1

(0.3%)

1

(0.4%)

0

(0.0%)

0

(0.0%)

0

(0.0%)

0

(0.0%)

2

(0.9%)

0

(0.0%)

2

(1.1%)

0

(0.0%)

2

(0.8%)

Educational Attainment: N (%)

 

Graduate Degree

286 (40.9%)

216 (45.2%)

70 (31.7%)

127 (40.6%)

116

(45.7%)

43

(32.6%)

196 (41.0%)

90 (41.1%)

214 (44.9%)

72 (32.4%)

216 (41.5%)

70 (39.1%)

173 (43.2%)

90

(36.4%)

Four Years of College

270 (38.6%)

197 (41.2%)

73 (33.0%)

127 (40.6%)

83

(32.7%)

60

(45.5%)

188 (39.3%)

82 (37.4%)

180 (37.7%)

90 (40.5%)

212 (40.8%)

58 (32.4%)

171 (42.8%)

86

(34.8%)

Some College/Vocational School

102 (14.6%)

52

(10.9%)

50 (22.6%)

43 (13.7%)

39

(15.4%)

20

(15.2%)

69 (14.4%)

31 (14.2%)

60

(12.6%)

42 (18.9%)

70 (13.5%)

32 (17.9%)

43 (10.8%)

50

(20.2%)

No College

41

(5.9%)

13

(2.7%)

28 (12.7%)

16

(5.1%)

16

(6.3%)

9

(6.8%)

25

(5.2%)

16

(7.3%)

23

(4.8%)

18

(8.1%)

22

(4.2%)

19 (10.6%)

13

(3.2%)

21

(8.5%)

Current Relationship Status: N (%)

 

Married

172 (24.6%)

133 (27.8%)

39 (17.6%)

88 (28.1%)

70 (27.6%)

14

(10.6%)

108 (22.6%)

64 (29.2%)

139 (29.1%)

33

(14.9%)

108 (20.8%)

64 (35.8%)

96

(24.0%)

60

(24.3%)

In a Relationship

229 (32.8%)

153 (32.0%)

76 (34.4%)

83 (26.5%)

81 (31.9%)

65

(49.2%)

164 (34.3%)

63 (28.8%)

142 (29.8%)

87

(39.2%)

199 (38.3%)

30 (16.8%)

131

(32.8%)

85

(34.4%)

Single

235 (33.6%)

152 (31.8%)

83 (37.6%)

114 (36.4%)

80 (31.5%)

41

(31.1%)

157 (32.8%)

78 (35.6%)

160 (33.5%)

75

(33.8%)

177 (34.0%)

58 (32.4%)

139

(34.7%)

80

(32.4%)

Divorced/Separated

45

(6.4%)

30

(6.3%)

15

(6.8%)

21

(6.7%)

15

(5.9%)

9

(6.8%)

35

(7.3%)

10

(4.6%)

24

(5.0%)

21

(9.5%)

25

(4.8%)

20 (11.2%)

25

(6.2%)

15

(6.1%)

Widowed

4

(0.6%)

0

(0.0%)

4

(1.8%)

0

(0.0%)

4

(1.6%)

0

(0.0%)

1

(0.2%)

3

(1.4%)

4

(0.8%)

0

(0.0%)

1

(0.2%)

3

(1.7%)

1

(0.2%)

3

(1.2%)

Other

14

(2.0%)

10

(2.1%)

4

(1.8%)

7

(2.2%)

4

(1.6%)

3

(2.3%)

13

(2.7%)

1

(0.5%)

8

(1.7%)

6

(2.7%)

10

(1.9%)

4

(2.2%)

8

(2.0%)

4

(1.6%)

Sociopolitical Concerns: Mean (SD)h

25.33 (8.39)

24.49 (7.65)

27.17 (9.55)

25.02 (8.34)

25.29 (8.67)

26.17

(7.93)

25.29 (7.65)

25.32 (9.75)

25.25 (8.49)

25.52 (8.17)

24.85 (8.15)

26.75 (8.90)

24.51 (8.06)

26.56 (8.56)

Social Desirability Bias: Mean (SD)i

24.52 (25.61)

22.34 (23.52)

29.23 (29.14)

23.19 (25.82)

28.11 (26.95)

20.76

(21.46)

21.72 (24.36)

30.32 (27.11)

25.28 (26.39)

22.88 (23.82)

22.31 (23.83)

30.95 (29.31)

23.50 (25.09)

25.75 (26.46)

Adult & childhood economic security, current occupational class, and current housing tenure

Childhood Economic Deprivation: N (%)j

256 (36.6%)

128 (26.8%)

128 (57.9%)

110 (35.1%)

86 (33.9%)

60

(45.5%)

164 (34.3%)

91 (41.6%)

168 (35.2%)

88 (39.6%)

188 (36.2%)

68 (38.0%)

117 (29.2%)

115 (46.6%)

Adult Economic Deprivation: N (%)k

204 (29.2%)

109 (22.8%)

95 (43.0%)

78 (24.9%)

71 (28.0%)

55

(41.7%)

136 (28.5%)

68 (31.1%)

120 (25.2%)

84 (37.8%)

153 (29.4%)

51 (28.5%)

89 (22.2%)

97

(39.3%)

Adult Food Insecurity: N (%)l

198 (28.3%)

106 (22.2%)

92 (41.6%)

75 (24.0%)

69 (27.2%)

54

(40.9%)

130 (27.2%)

68 (31.1%)

115 (24.1%)

83 (37.4%)

155 (29.8%)

43 (24.0%)

91 (22.8%)

85

(34.4%)

Occupational class of participant: N (%)

 

Non-supervisory Employee

330 (47.2%)

92

(41.6%)

238

(49.8%)

145 (46.3%)

122 (48.0%)

63

(47.7%)

223 (46.7%)

107 (48.9%)

224 (47.0%)

106 (47.7%)

270 (51.9%)

60 (33.5%)

206

(51.5%)

103 (41.7%)

Owner, Self-employed, or Supervisory Employee

227 (32.5%)

64

(29.0%)

163

(34.1%)

109 (34.8%)

83 (32.7%)

35

(26.5%)

169 (35.4%)

58 (26.5%)

168 (35.2%)

59

(26.6%)

157 (30.2%)

70 (39.1%)

126

(31.5%)

81 (32.8%)

Unemployed or Not in the Paid Labor Force

105 (15.0%)

44

(19.9%)

61

(12.8%)

45 (14.4%)

34 (13.4%)

26

(19.7%)

68 (14.2%)

37 (16.9%)

63

(13.2%)

42

(18.9%)

66 (12.7%)

39 (21.8%)

47

(11.7%)

48 (19.4%)

Other

32

(4.6%)

17

(7.7%)

15

(3.1%)

11 (3.5%)

15 (5.9%)

6

(4.5%)

16 (3.3%)

14 (6.4%)

19

(4.0%)

13

(5.9%)

23

(4.4%)

9

(5.0%)

19

(4.8%)

12

(4.9%)

Not Specified

5

(0.7%)

4

(1.8%)

1

(0.2%)

3 (1.0%)

0

(0.0%)

2

(1.5%)

2

(0.4%)

3

(1.4%)

3

(0.6%)

2

(0.9%)

4

(0.8%)

1

(0.6%)

2

(0.5%)

3

(1.2%)

Housing tenure: N (%)

 

Home Owned with a Mortgage/Loan

247 (35.3%)

177 (37.0%)

70 (31.7%)

126 (40.3%)

95 (37.4%)

26

(19.7%)

174 (36.4%)

73 (33.3%)

189 (39.6%)

58 (26.1%)

155 (29.8%)

92 (51.4%)

140 (35.0%)

85

(34.4%)

Home Owned Free and Clear

39

(5.6%)

28

(5.9%)

11

(5.0%)

23

(7.3%)

12

(4.7%)

4

(3.0%)

28

(5.9%)

11

(5.0%)

33

(6.9%)

6

(2.7%)

23

(4.4%)

16

(8.9%)

26

(6.5%)

13

(5.3%)

Rent Home

360 (51.5%)

247 (51.7%)

113 (51.1%)

146 (46.6%)

122 (48.0%)

92

(69.7%)

241 (50.4%)

118 (53.9%)

222 (46.5%)

138 (62.2%)

299 (57.5%)

61 (34.1%)

206 (51.5%)

128 (51.8%)

Occupied Without Payment of Cash Rent

11

(1.6%)

6

(1.3%)

5

(2.3%)

4

(1.3%)

5

(2.0%)

2

(1.5%)

9

(1.9%)

2

(0.9%)

8

(1.7%)

3

(1.4%)

9

(1.7%)

2

(1.1%)

7

(1.8%)

4

(1.6%)

Not Specified

39

(5.6%)

18

(3.8%)

21

(9.5%)

12

(3.8%)

19

(7.5%)

8

(6.1%)

23

(4.8%)

15

(6.8%)

24

(5.0%)

15

(6.8%)

32

(6.2%)

7

(3.9%)

18

(4.5%)

17

(6.9%)

Homeless

3

(0.4%)

2

(0.4%)

1

(0.5%)

2

(0.6%)

1

(0.4%)

0

(0.0%)

3

(0.6%)

0

(0.0%)

1

(0.2%)

2

(0.9%)

2

(0.4%)

1

(0.6%)

3

(0.8%)

0

(0.0%)

Census tract characteristics 5-year estimate (2015–2019)

American Community Survey (ACS) datam

Composition by Racialized Group: Mean (SD)

 

Proportion White Non-Hispanic: Mean (SD)

0.59 (0.25)

0.65

(0.21)

0.46 (0.29)

0.62 (0.24)

0.57 (0.27)

0.58

(0.24)

0.62 (0.23)

0.53 (0.29)

0.58

(0.26)

0.62 (0.23)

0.59 (0.24)

0.59 (0.30)

0.61 (0.24)

0.58

(0.27)

Proportion Black Non-Hispanic: Mean (SD)

0.16 (0.21)

0.10

(0.12)

0.29 (0.29)

0.13 (0.18)

0.19 (0.25)

0.16

(0.19)

0.13 (0.16)

0.23 (0.27)

0.17

(0.23)

0.13 (0.17)

0.15 (0.20)

0.18 (0.25)

0.14 (0.18)

0.18

(0.24)

Proportion Hispanic: Mean (SD)

0.13 (0.11)

0.12

(0.12)

0.15 (0.11)

0.12 (0.11)

0.13 (0.11)

0.15

(0.13)

0.13 (0.12)

0.13 (0.10)

0.13

(0.11)

0.13 (0.12)

0.13 (0.11)

0.13 (0.12)

0.13 (0.11)

0.13

(0.12)

Proportion Asian: Mean (SD)

0.10 (0.09)

0.10

(0.09)

0.08 (0.08)

0.10 (0.09)

0.09 (0.08)

0.09

(0.09)

0.10 (0.09)

0.09 (0.08)

0.10

(0.09)

0.10 (0.09)

0.10 (0.09)

0.08 (0.08)

0.10 (0.09)

0.09

(0.09)

[Missing: N (%)]

[13 (1.9%)]

[8 (

1.7%)]

[5

(2.3%)]

[4

(1.3%)]

[7

(2.8%)]

[2

(1.5%)]

[8

(1.7%)]

[5

(2.3%)]

[9

(1.9%)]

[4

(1.8%)]

[8

(1.5%)]

[5

(2.8%)]

[4

(1.0%)]

[3

(1.2%)]

Index for Concentration at the Extremes (ICE): Mean (SD)

 

ICE for Racialized Economic Segregation (High-Income White Non-Hispanic vs. Low-Income Black Non-Hispanic) n

0.24 (0.25)

0.29

(0.22)

0.13 (0.28)

0.26 (0.25)

0.22 (0.27)

0.23

(0.23)

0.26 (0.23)

0.19 (0.29)

0.23

(0.26)

0.26

(0.22)

0.24 (0.24)

0.23 (0.28)

0.26

(0.25)

0.22

(0.26)

ICE for Housing Tenure (Home Ownership vs. Renter)

-0.05 (0.49)

-0.03 (0.49)

-0.07 (0.47)

-0.02 (0.51)

-0.05 (0.47)

-0.08

(0.46)

-0.04 (0.48)

-0.06 (0.50)

-0.05

(0.49)

-0.05

(0.47)

-0.08 (0.48)

0.05 (0.50)

-0.05

(0.49)

-0.04 (0.46)

[Missing: N (%)]

[13 (1.9%)]

[8 (

1.7%)]

[5

(2.3%)]

[4

(1.3%)]

[7

(2.8%)]

[2

(1.5%)]

[8

(1.7%)]

[5

(2.3%)]

[9

(1.9%)]

[4

(1.8%)]

[8

(1.5%)]

[5

(2.8%)]

[4

(1.0%)]

[3

(1.2%)]

Median Income (2019 Inflation Adjusted US Dollars): Mean (SD)

43 544.3 (15 581.6)

39 363.1 (14 377.5)

45 465.9 (15 50.8)

44 711.3 (15 294.8)

42 872.5 (15,945.8)

42 046.8

(15 472.8)

44 071.5 (14 758.9)

42 374.5 (17 293.1)

43 789.90 (15 881.48)

43 017.1 (14 939.4)

43 534.0 (15 474.1)

43 574.7 (15 938.8)

44 668.5 (16 052.3)

41 942.6 (14 597.0)

[Missing: N (%)]

[13 (1.9%)]

[8 (

1.7%)]

[5

(2.3%)]

[4

(1.3%)]

[7

(2.8%)]

[2

(1.5%)]

[8

(1.7%)]

[5

(2.3%)]

[9

(1.9%)]

[4

(1.8%)]

[8

(1.5%)]

[5

(2.8%)]

[4

(1.0%)]

[3

(1.2%)]

  1. a The heterosexism analysis compares experiences of discrimination based on sexual orientation. The contrasted social comparison groups for this type of discrimination include individuals that identified as Straight or LGBQ. The Straight” category includes participants that only identified as straight or heterosexual, and the “LGBQ” category includes participants that identified as gay or lesbian, bisexual, queer, same gender loving, asexual, pansexual, questioning, or two or more sexualities. N = 2 participants did not report their sexuality and were not included in the comparison for heterosexism
  2. b The cissexism analysis compares experiences of discrimination based on gender modality. The contrasted social comparison groups for this type of discrimination include individuals that identify as cisgender and those that do not (transgender, nonbinary, or genderqueer individuals)
  3. c The sizeism analysis compares experiences of discrimination based on weight. The contrasted social comparison groups for this type of discrimination include those labeled as “obese” and “not obese” based on BMI (body mass index) ≥ 30 or < 30. N = 52 participants were missing height or weight measurements needed to calculate BMI, so these participants were not included in the comparison for sizeism
  4. d The Age, BMI, & Social Group Membership section reports observed values for persons included in the specified comparison groups and only reports missing data for body mass index (BMI), as this was the only variable in which there was missing data
  5. e−n See Appendix D Table 3
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International Journal for Equity in Health

ISSN: 1475-9276

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